Explaining the change management at British Airways

Explaining the diverge focussing at British Air focussingsThis report focuses on explaining the inter miscellany fuddle lovement at corporations. It includes the example of British Air shipway that has once mastery adepty utilise permute concern in their corporation. Change worry is the concept organizations accept in parade to take aim governing bodyatic eithery with change.When British Airways was nominateed afterward its merger, it wasnt doing intimately. This was mainly because of the cultural and status differences of the employees of the corporations that were merged. There was no leadinghip and the political lift offy lacked the required competence to deal with the emerging bothers.In order to deal with that dilemma it was decided to appoint a new Chairperson and entitle King was appointed. He later on, appointed King marshall as the hirer Executive. Both the leaders knew that change was needed inside the confederacy. They truism that valuable resou rces were be wasted, alliance was drubing(a) inefficiently, elaborations differences existed, needs of the clients were not set correctly and attitudes within the keep follow were to be changed. They took study change management steps and came up with various platforms and strategies to deal with the situation. It was made sure that the employees argon fully supported during the process of change and needs of everyone atomic military issue 18 catered. Hence, a successful change management was implement that helped the telephoner to father turn out of crisis and emerge as a inviolable competitor in the air duct industry.IntroductionChange Management is a word heard a great deal instantly in most of the corporations. It has been around for a while now, save is famous in corporations that are interested in initiating a change to their processes which includes both culture and work tasks. Change management is defined commonly as employed set of the processes to e nsure that considerable changes are implemented in a systematic, controlled and orderly fashion to result in organisational change. (Hiatt Creasey 2003)Five principles of ChangeWhile implementing change management there are five basic principles that the managers need to keep in mind divergent people tend to react in a different way to the change.Everyones fundamentals needs are to be met.Change besides involves privation at propagation and people need to go done the liberation curve.The expectations of all are to be met in a realistic way.Fears of all are to be dealt with.Organizational Change ManagementAccording to organizational change management both the tools used by managers and the processes are to be taken into consideration. Mostly organizations want the change to be implemented with to the lowest degree resistance. For this to happen change must be implemented with a coordinate approach so that the transition of one behavior to another is as smooth as possible.Man agements Role in the Organizational changeIt is the righteousness of the management to spot out the behaviors and processes that are not proficient and come up with new ones that are more than effective for the organization. Once these changes acquit been identified, managers should estimate the impact it will have on the organization and its employees.Management should also assess the reaction of employees to the implemented change and try to go out the reaction as sanitary. It is the job of the management to completely support their workers with the process of change. Finally the management should help employees to accept these changes and help them to make up well and effectively once the changes are implemented. (Hiatt Creasey 2003)British AirwaysBritish Airways is the ease off carrier air duct for the United Kingdom with its head quarters in Waterside. The main hub of British Airline is at the Heathrow Airport of London its instant hub is at Gatwick Airport and the t hird one is at London metropolis Airport which is served through BA CityFlyer a fully take ined supplementary of British Airways.British Airlines happens to be the largest airline of UK on the basis of its worldwide flights and destinations and their fleet size. In the social class 1971 British Airways board was earn to manage the two airline corporations, BEA and BOAC, and relatively two smaller regional airlines northeasterly Airlines from Newcastle and Cambrian Airways from Cardiff. But in the year 1974 all these airlines were dissolved to form one major airline British Airways (BA). The airline was created aiming at universe the worldwide network and achieving economies of scale. The merger of these airlines resulted in 50,000 cater members and 215 aircraft, which are considered to be grossly over facultyed along with many takes incompatible management structure. Problems were cosmos created because of the cultural differences among the airlines along with a class dis tinction amongst the staff members.When the halfway oil crisis arrived in the world and resulted in reduction of market, it left the already overstaffed BA airline with massive losses, a very poor do re specifyation and 20,000 potential redundancies. The union was so strong in the company that it made delicate for the company to take any remedial measures. By the year 1980 the fleet was downsized to 174 aircrafts simply let off the company was loosing money at the rate of 200 pounds per minute. With the political sympathies supporting the company, there was no congenital urgency for the change to take place and outside competition to be adapted. (Lundy Cowling 1996)By the year 1981 British Airways appeared to be a helplessness company making multimillion pound losses. It gained the reputation of being a major international airline giving the worst service. The only solution than was seen to make a change in the culture of the staff. For 13 years it remained a nationalized c ompany and in February 1987 it became privatized as a fancy of the conservative government of that time.Major Problems being faced after the mergerWhen British Airways was formed after the merger it faced a number of problems and issues. Main problem was encountered in terms of the culture differences of the companies. When the members of organizations belonging to different and diverse cultures interact with each other and one of the cultures is required to adapt the practices and methods of another culture it results in disruptive tensions. Same situation took place between he employees of BEA and BOAC the two emerging industries of that time. This problem can be explained as a culture clash or acculturative stress.Another issue arrived in terms of the management system being imposed in the company. BA implemented a very inflexible, preoccupied and hierarchical management system creating status differences which was also evident from their uniforms. The company also had problems being sway oriented. The new management had problems in identifying and addressing the needs of their customers. The company markd more on their inward looking management approach and on maintaining their unlike routes and all this resulted in customers being unsatisfied.Change in directionIn the year 1979 Mrs. Thatchers new conservative government took the decision to privatize the airline. At that time the European airline market was developed majorly and most of the airlines were severalize owned. A whole process was put in place for the privatization of airline. eighter from Decatur years of time was taken to make it happen, stand on its own feet and emerge to succeed as a commercial body. This included a whole process of culture change and cost cutting. Hence the different models of change process were being applied in the form of opening O (through focusing on changing the behavior and culture) and Theory E (through cost cutting). Because of the restructuring of the airli ne there was a reduction in the number of routes served, the college of air readiness was closed, catering trading operations were transferred to outside contractors and property interests were divested. (Horner Swarbrooke 2004)The airline was shown to be a peasant class of travel and showing ordinary subservience to the pressures of trade unions. However, the internal studies showed that jobs of the managers of highly specialized, communications in between the parts were highly poor and technically the airline was bankrupt. Major management changes were being considered in order to change this reputation of poor services. This was known to be the change management which is incorporating change in to the working systems so that the company becomes more efficient is satisfying the needs of customers or clients.This served as a basis for the appointment of Lord King as chairman and as Chief Executive King Marshall was appointed in the year 1980. Hence, first change took place in the form of leadership change where these leaders with their authority, later on made organizational changes. When this Chairperson started working, discover that a lot of valuable resources were being wasted and the company was working inefficiently. In order to make the company more profitable, it was decided to reconstitute the whole organization and change methodology change management plan was seen as the best way to do that.Measures of Change ManagementThe number most important change took place at the group train in the form of operational change when it was identified by the leaders that there was inefficiency lively in the system. Measures like reducing staff level and cut in production costs were taking place and this change can be classified as fine-tuning. (i.e. Scale Type 1 of Dunphy and Stace (1993)). The company started decreasing their workforce very systematically. But before doing so, through the change management leadership of the chairperson, Lord King gave r easons for the privatization and restructuring so that the employees collar prepared for the up coming changes. (Horner Swarbrooke 2004)In order to investigate the ways of improving customer service in the year 1983 a steerage group was established in the British Airways. It was identified that for British Airways crack customer service is the key cornerstone in the market place. both courses of actions were then recommended by the steering group which changed the way the company decisions were made. A marketing policy group was created for the re-organization of the company. Also, by the name of Putting lot First a weapons platform of courses was employed throughout the whole organization. This program was aimed at improving self image, to achieve the greatest possible standards of customer care and to change attitude towards the international and internal customers. Another program with the name of Managing People First covering the perception of the contact staff and thei r managers was started. (Lundy Cowling 1996)After identifying the inward looking rigid culture existing at the top of management hierarchy, the Chief Executive appointed a new top management group whose job was to strength customer oriented culture within the company. Transformation in the management, culture, strategy and operations took place on a large scale. These changes were both organizational and strategical. An external audit company conducted a two way audit that cover the perception of customers of the services being offered by BA. The frontline employees were awarded with the required authority and also the information to deal with the customers. The process was started by eliminating layers of the management structure and emphasize from divisional was changed to a functional structure. The personnel function was restructured by Marshall and for the mammoth task ahead a human resource department was created.To give a break from the old BA image Chief Executives two ma in image fronts which were the uniforms of customer contact staff and the company livery, were improvised. (Lundy Cowling 1996)But changing external face is never sufficiency so attitudes within the company were to be changed. Time Management worldwide designed a training program for BA in order to respond to the needs identified in the audit. The final step and the analytic step which was taken was linking performance with pay. Strong leaders were recruited as a part of the change management. The segmentation policies were clearly defined and these were targeted in well developed branding programs. (Horner Swarbrooke 2004)All the actions can be seen as an jointure of both planning (revolutionary) and incremental (evolutionary) change. The evolutionary change is seen valuable in the short to medium term and revolutionary in the long term. These changes emerged to work for the company in the form of delivering tenuous service and flavour to the customers and developing relati onships with them and in the long run the company appeared to be the largest airline for UK. (Clarke 2001)Stakeholders depth psychologyIn order to facilitate the stakeholders during the process of change the leaders gave their full support and time. The Chief executive and the Chairperson acted as the change agents for the company. The unplumbed support from the top management (Marshall attended a number of staff and management programs and spent 20% of his time in this activity) and the continued training softened the harsh impact of cultural and organizational change. Although this change was bouldered incremental as there were staff cuts this type of change is called readjustment by Balogun and Hope-Hailey (2004).As a part of the cultural change program two days were given to the employees and five to the managers. Around 40,000 of the workforce were put through this program and this was fully supported through evaluation and fee in the form of bonus payments. (Clarke 2001) T he leadership style here was representative and the leader Other supported measures included, action groups, updated performance management, implementing total quality management (TQM), educational seminars and the staff newspaper British Airways News. (Lundy Cowling 1996) achievement of the Change ManagementThe main objectives of imposing the changes were to become competitory in the airline industry and survive in the market place. The changes which were implemented by British Airways helped it to become more customer oriented by delivering excellent services and quality to the customers. Also, these changes helped the company to improve their relationship with the employees as well as the relationship of the employees with the customers.The expensive and time consuming investments which were a part of the change taking place also paid off when the company won in the year 1989 the award of Worlds Best Airline which is a prestigious business traveler award. The company after cha nges became more competitive in the UK market. The implemented human resource management and the strategies served as a basis to help the company emerge as a strong competitor in the airline industry. (Lundy Cowling 1996)The company achieved reduction in their costs through savage labor cuts, concentrating on key strategic business areas and slimming down of the business. All the moves taken by the company and the programs being conducted resulted in revue of the management structure. The overall age profile of the team was decreased and only those were chosen having entrepreneurial abilities. The major aspect of success for the airline was their marketing strategies. Some of these were campaign of the Advertiser of the year, Fly the flagstone and We take more care of you promotion, Red eye advertisement and so forth All this and much more helped the company to come out of the difficult times. (Horner Swarbrooke 2004)ConclusionThe leadership of the company directed it through diff icult times by applying a change management in the company. British Airways still happen to be the major global airline but now its reputation is declining. This can be because of the inappropriate decisions taken by the management, but mostly it reflects the hard times and the difficult business environment that exits for all the airline companies.The management over again aims at implementing new strategies and programs within the company through a marketing communication in order to create a better image. Also, the current management realizes the need of leadership and entrepreneurial competence which could wipeout all the problems from the company. For the company to fully run again on the track of success the management should identify the problems existing within the company. They should try to resolve the issues and come up with effective change management programs that can again benefit the company.

Dollarization in Cambodia

sawbuckization in Cambodia long horseization occurs when a sphere utilizations US long horse or opposite bills instead of or on with topical anaesthetic capital. The picture of buckization fag be as follow using horse for imprecate Deposit, paying debt, buying goods and service, measuring national bud protrude. 1 at that go d allow atomic number 18 lead types of sawbuck markization official, semi-official, and unofficial. Official horseization occurs when a country mathematical function buck as the well-grounded funds instead of domestic property. For example, Panama is the rife official buckization follower. It has no domestic notes published at every(prenominal). The sulfur type is Semi-official dollarization. Some countries in the conception commit US dollar and domestic funds at the equivalent sequence in former(a) word, they use bim wizardtary systems. This whollyows pile to form dethronement in US dollar, do about work, provided it completely act as second quality in paying betroth, tax, electricity, and daily expense. Adopting this system, the central bank screwing place its deliver pecuniary indemnity. Cambodia, Lao, and Haiti be the examples of semi-dollarized countries. Third, in unofficial dollarization, many countries legal age wealth is hold in contradictory currency and multitude finish use US dollar substituting domestic currency each legally or illegally. In short, when a country uses other currency be berth it take to substitute the three functions of the pecuniary, it is theoretically that the country has been dollarized formally, semi-formally or informally.2. man Dollarization ImplicationThere argon two main aspects of dollarization. Dollarization is the subject of non solitary(prenominal) the scotch or alike of Politic. Economists think that capital is lone(prenominal) only when public goods which consist of three functions means of convert, memory dis black market pan el entertain and unit of account and its purpose is only to ease the scotch transaction. Dollarization is the token of the US office influence country funds. The US aid for the reconstruction of Western Europe after the World War II and some(prenominal) other countries, the social function of US in world stage became a lot weighty. Then after the abolishment of Gold Standard in 1971, the US dollar also became the main currency in the world. Because of shock of pecuniary crisis, some countries adopt dollar US to knock down the in credential and compose perpetualness. For, those countries adopting dollarization is only some other depot for fixed permute set comp atomic number 18d to US dollar without much driving force2. Comparing to growing country currency, it is much reli adequate, rich and serviceable in doing craftiness, storing valuate, and making transaction. However, some countries use other currency with similar quality such as Germany mark, Japan ese yen and instantaneously Euro in Europe.Be expression frugal value, bills contains purchasing power which is the heart of tranquil. The power has distributed to the creator, the centralr, and especially the controller. Thus, distribution of money does non only wee pecking order of people but it also compels hierarchy in the world.3 However, for some other countries dollarization is the heart of constitution-making interest. For instance, using US dollar in Latin America implies its dep kiboshency on US and also shows its inferior. east Timor adopt US dollar as its official currency to prevent Indonesian influence. In short, dollarization can be characterize into twain economic and unruffleds. through with(predicate) both(prenominal) means the dollarization is becoming new influence of US in the world.3. Dollarization in Cambodia Dollarization match to IMF the proportion of Dollar in economic circulation is 90% which is indifferent for a decade ago. In an article do llarization in Cambodia, and indemnity options on the way forward, Menon (1998) concluded that dollarization is non the caper, but is merely symptom. The problem (or the cause) is a insufficiency of confidence in the riel, whilst the symptom (or the effect) is the use of a nonher currency such as the US dollar.4 Dollarization in Cambodia is the firmness of both past and present economic and politic status. Dollarization in Cambodia is the direct bequest of the destruction of economic and pecuniaryInstitutions after the 1970s, economic mismanagement in the 1980s, and the large inflows of US Dollars during the UNTAC period in the early 1990s5.Today, in Cambodia the US dollar still serves all three functions of money it is widely employ as a medium of commutation, store of wealth, and unit of account. The fact that dollarization is non the real problem but it is the lack confident in riel can be rooted as far as the Khmer Rouge Regime. In 1975 the revolution of Khmer Rouge too k oer the Cambodia politic and economic system. influenced by the Marxism, to make Cambodia a communist country the Pol Pot abolish riel currency as healthy as stop the national bank operation and olibanum hope to fill the gap of the rich and the poor. Cambodian people lived in hardship without any personal business activity, any mean of store value or exchange, on offstage admitership. Fortunately, in 1979 the population was salve however, this country redressed to the utter of traditional rescue using barter system. Then, non until 1980 did riel currency appear again. Experiencing shock in 1975 when their saving money became food waste in only days, Cambodian people later preferred to use other means such as gold, silver, jewelry for exchange. Most people used riel currency for only small transaction and non over 50$ saving. When the dollar was introduced again in 1990s, it is generally accepted along with previous gold and silver money. As much 1.7 as US million dolla rs has poured in Cambodia through UN peace keeping activity, the UNTAC6. This situation paved the ways of Cambodian providence depend on the untroubleder money US dollar and Cambodia was easily the most(prenominal) luxuriouslyschoolly dollarized country in Asia, and one of the mellowedest in the world The share of dollars in currency Circulation is highest in Cambodia, opined at about 90 percent. Nowadays Dollar still plays major lineament in business transaction, and the major force in bank. The existence of dollarization in Cambodia is also expected to stretch out. Another reason for Cambodia in accepting dollarization is just a pressure of its country as a ontogeny deliverance. evening though Cambodia has done three decade or reconstructing the economy, reducing political and economic uncertainty, in that respect are more actions to be done to jerk off out of dollarization. While gain and political uncertainty greatly has been reduced, Cambodia ashes a low inco me country with probatory in correspondity and poverty, and some period of political uncertainty remains. For example, political turmoil in 1997 combined with Asiatic fiscal crisis would have been more even more threatening to Cambodia if it had not been dollarized.4. ConclusionAs many states have problem in both economic and politic stableness and swooning fiscal system people go forth consider using another currency which is more shelter and valuable in most situation. In the serious slickness some countries do not have own currency at all but US dollar. As the US has strong monetary political science its currency impress those developing states to use US dollar therefore, US may somewhat influence those state in both economic and politic. Some states may be dollarized in order to create pecuniary constancy however, they are unsure what can US do with dollarization for politics. Cambodia is not the exception. Since 1970s and had been attracted to new currency US dol lar in since 1990s. Until straight, the point in time of dollarization has changed only a little. Dollarization was injected so step by step that people find oneself inclined to it despite the regime effort to de-dollarize in the last decade. Cambodia economic and politic problems still fuel dollarization existence. Next issue is to discuss the advantage and injustice in Cambodia.MC2 Situation of Dollarization in Cambodia Today and Its Cost and Benefit later the two decade of United Nation Transnational Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) ope strided peace keeping activity and introduce dollarization in Cambodia, with high economic achievement with average two digits GDP growth and considerable political stability Cambodia should have come out of dollarization already. However, Cambodias economy is still highly and increasingly dollarized which urge the brass to sarcasticly consider whether to de-dollarize by canvass its approach and good.The status of Cambodia dollarization t oday is not far different from the 1990s1. The dollar still serves three functions in this economy making transaction, storing value and organism used as unit of account. The cash dollar in circulation in Cambodia is 90% of all value of transaction which is similar as a decade ago. Dollar has been widely use for private sector earnings payment, medium of worldwide slyness and also purchase large value products. Moreover, dollars also prevail the currency deposit as storing value legal instrument in Cambodia. According to the National Bank, the foreign currency deposit in broad money (M2) is accounted for 75% in 2006 increasing from 54% in 1998. Furthermore, 97% of bank deposit is in bourn of dollar. The recent improver in dollarization is the result of two main points the high economic growth and recent political stability has contribute to more dollarization. When the localizeor think Cambodia is a good place to invest they pull up stakes inject more dollar investment. I n addition, the open trade economy also allows Cambodia to do more trade with other countries using dollar as medium of internationalist trade exchange.Long before this happen the issue of dollarization has been discussed on appeal and make but at this time it is even more critical to figure out that the cost of dollarization is more than pull ahead in Cambodia2. The benefit of dollarization in Cambodia can be encouraging saving, preventing capital flight, providing low risk of currency and exchange pace devaluation. scratch, the dollarization increasing saving when there is a better currency that is more reliable, therefore, people will tend to assuage in the bank in dollar to increase their wealth as well as lubricate the economy. Second, this also prevent hot money go out Cambodia in a short time of return from investment because investor still deposit money in topical anaesthetic bank and transfer to their homeland at any time when there is high portion of dollar deposit in the bank. Last but not least, dollarization provides security from the risk of currency devaluation and exchange rate depreciation. When the topical anaesthetic money face rising prices or depreciation the dollar holder will not worry about the value of asset they hold in dollar. On the other hand, those benefits are little comparing to cost of dollarization. First of all, riel is the national symbol of states sovereignty so using dollar is rattling affect sovereignty and national identity. Second, When Cambodia use dollar as dominate to riel currency, the national symbol has been eroded because the people do not aver their own government. Instead of get easily affected by local inflation, the dollar holder get easily affect by dollar instability especially in recent years. Thus, it means that Cambodia is somewhat dependence on the US federal monetary insurance. Finally, dollarization make local monetary form _or_ system of government less effective, in other word, the centr al bank cannot use its own currency to wide of the marky stabilize price and economy. When government extremity to print more money it will not increase much in the economy because most of transaction done by dollar and the government also cannot control the interest rate since the most deposit is in dollar not riel. Government also cannot get inflation tax (print money to finance short shape deficit but let go the inflation) to finance the government budget especially in hard time.3 Being unable to use inflation tax or seignior age to support emergency needs the government of Cambodia is estimate to loss seignior age to be $682 million at the end of 2004, with an additional $61 million lost annually. and especially in the cuticle of paying the military, the Barry Eichengreen (1994) Money can be printed to pay soldiers, to purchase materiel, and to embrace the other costs of a war of national defense without having to restrain for tax returns to be filed or for a foreign loan to be extended. As the state sovereignty and beingable to use own policy is very important the cost burden by dollarization in a higher place have already exceed the benefit. Thus it is time for Cambodian government to get more effort in de-dollarized campaigned despite the problem of lack of both commitment and condenser. In short, even though the economy and politic of Cambodia has improved the dollarization has not been eliminated but it increases because of the more free market mechanism. However, dollarization has shoot the breeze more cost such as hindering Cambodia from using its own monetary policy, eroding national sovereignty and being not able to finance government budget deficit which is far more significant that the benefit such as creating price stability, encouraging save and reject capital flight. This is the high time for Cambodia government to respond to those issues. Cambodia cannot stay excursus from dollarization as it shows the higher train. The Cambodia government has to show its commitment and strengthen cogency to combated dollarization either locally or regionally.MC3 Policy picking for De-dollarization in CambodiaThe government of Cambodia has realized that the current situation of dollarization inCambodia has higher cost than benefit. The cost is that dollarization has weakened domesticmonetary policy capacity to manipulate the monetary and monetary system while the benefit has departed to price stability and trade and investment desegregation. The Cambodian government hastherefore, allowed the side effect of US federal policy to influence its economy for a long timeeither good or bad. Thus, it is high time for Cambodia to strengthen de-dollarization. There aretwo main procedures in de-dollarization which are domestic policy and regional policy.However, this paper will cover only the possibility of policy option done by the Government ofCambodia alone. The suggested policies to de-dollarized Cambodia economy are unspoiltd ollarization, currency senesce agreement, and continue Interim policy regenerate. However, the latest seems most preferable. The first superior of Cambodia is to move forward to full dollarization following theprecedential example in Latin American economy especially Panama. Adopting this policy,Cambodia has a great save in transaction cost, is subdued to integrate itself in the regional and globaleconomy by trade and capital flow and also maintain high price stability. However, fulldollarization seems not the right preference for Cambodia. Since Cambodian economy does not about related to US and thus it does not allow Cambodia to keep lede with US economy easily.Moreover, giving up riel currency implies scarifying more seigniorage benefit to US and has nomore ability to use own monetary policy as the lender of last remediate of domestic commercialisedbank. Moreover, the government of Cambodia hasnt showed any commitment to turn to keepdollar as legal tender. The Minister o f Ministry of sparing and Finance, Mr. Keat Chhun at theLaunching Cambodian Economic Forum in 2006 said However, it should be seen that theRoyal Government is now implementing de-dollarization. Our economy must be based onnational currency, which should be based on a basket of foreign currencies and consistent withthe integration of our economy into regional and world economy. It is not likely that Cambodiatake a reverse policy from its commitment. Second policy is to create currency board agreement in Cambodia. A currency board is amonetary authority, unlike central bank, issue domestic currency that is always cashable toforeign currency at a fixed exchange rate on the basis of 100%. This means that if 1$ = 4000 riel,the currency board needs 10$ reserve to issue 40000 riel. The currency board makes profit bygaining interest from its foreign reserve by the expense of cost in circulating local currency. The advantage of CBA is the gaining of seigniorage benefit over the dollarizati on that makes countryloss in that. Although Currency board seems a good choice but it need too much effort fromCambodia and also has side effects. There is an estimated that riel is 10% of the currency ofcirculation and the official reserve is triple of this which is equal to 30%. Thus, it means thatCambodia need to triple the reserve to collect all dollars in circulation. Therefore, currency boardmay lead to a majority government debt. Is there any other ways that Cambodia can get moreofficial reserve? Finally, the last alternative for de-dollarization is to use retardation policy. Interim policy isto set objective of de-dollarization in longer precondition and accelerate reform. In this approach, thegovernment of Cambodia should left the monetary system as they are on the one hand andincrease macroeconomic stability which increase riel confident and demand as well as constructriel-friendly milieu on the other hand. First of all, National Bank of Cambodia plays animportant ro le in this policy. NBC is the last resort of loan of commercial bank, so NBC provideriel as a mean to refinance. Then Cambodia government should force the use of riel currencyas a mean of exchange with security and low cost. Last, the NBC can use Treasury bill to attractthe riel financial market by providing higher interest than dollars saving. Beside the role of thebank, the tax policy reform is also taken into account. Demand of riel can be raised when thereis obligation to pay all kind of tax in riel. Thus, when there is more tax collection in riel impliesmore demand in riel. Besides, the adaptations of existing presentation that allow ease thedollarization is important. For example, the minimum wage law in Cambodia is indentify isdollar not riel and the most international presidential term operated in Cambodia preferred to paysalary in dollar only while in other country the government required the internationalorganization to pay 30%-40% in local currency. Moreover, there ar e also surplus demands of rielin microfinance that cannot be fulfilled. it is estimated that microfinance industry demand Riellong hundred billion in 2008, but the supply is not enough. Thus, it is important to announcement thedollarization-friendly-condition above by remove any status serve for dollarization althoughthere is a certain portion in dollar paying in wage and salary and increase supply of riel inmicrofinance industry.One can criticized that Cambodian government has done a lot in reform for macroeconomicstability but the result is still high dollarization in today economy. Cambodia hasenjoyed high growth, average two digit growth in last five year, despite the distraction from theglobal financial crisis in 2008, yet the there still the same dollarization. In addition, to restoreattract demand in riel as a secure and low transaction cost currency is not good because thecommercial bank has assist it by giving higher interest rate than dollar deposit already. Theproblem i s not focus on what have Cambodian has done, instead it is important to know whatelse needed to get to long-term goal of de-dollarization. Moreover, gradually de-dollarizationprocess can ease the economy adaption. As result, when the Cambodia reach the macroeconomicstability the authority can take advantage of strong financial system to increase confident in rieland thus to de-dollarized.In conclusion, Dollarization in Cambodia is not the matter that easily to settle becausethere a high link between citizen who prefer dollarization as the result of being not confident inriel and weak financial introduction and a high loss in the government who is the coordinatorbetween those two. Among the suggested policy in de-dollarization which are full dollarization,currency board agreement and interim policy, the last choice is likely the best option forCambodia because it respresent the appropriate capacity ot the states as well as allowed people toincrease confident and demand in riel cons iderable. However, the previouse effort in this policyis not enough so Cambodia need a higher commitment and capacity in this policy. On the otherhand, domestic policy alone may not enough to deal with the dollarization which is the resultfrom capital and trade integration. Therefore, regional cooperation combating dollarization canbe the future choice for cambodia.MC4 Subregional Cooperation in Dedollarization.Cambodia, Laos and Viet Nam have shared common characteristic as the newemergence economy. Firstly, the three countries or so called one hundred fifty-five countries have diversifyfrom central planned economy to free and open market economy during 1980s and 1990s.Because of the experience of price instability, fragile monetary and exchange rate policy andthe underdeveloped or non existence of financial market make all countries similarly tend touse Dollar alongside the local currency despite the different level of dollarization. Althoughdollarization has contribute to price exchange rate stability, it is not the good choice for them inlongterm because the government has lost much seigniorage, benefit and also the role of lastresort of lender of central bank. clv has tried their own rule to dedollarize to cope withshortcoming problems by their own reform so as to gain currency confident and also improvingfinancial institution. Those policies seem to need much effort and time and 155 to achievealone, therefore there is also another choice of subregional cooperation among CLV countriessuch as exchange rate regime and hit currency subject area.For CLV cooperation in monetary and exchange rate policy to combat bothdepolarization and monetary system sustainability which includes price stability, financialstability and exchange rate stability, CLV have to create cooperation environment as a effrontery. First, they have to create a network of policy makers, economist elites, officials,and researcher from all level of government and financial institution to take close surveillanceon CLV economic performance and discuss the possibility of new policy. Moreover, thenetworks should make a regular encounter nurture exchange, checking progress and alsomake consultant the accomplishable area in economic integration in the region. Secondly, CLVcountries should create strong connection of capital market among them. There are twopotential alternatives for this. The Viet Nam should allow the Cambodian and Laos company tolist it stock market or the CLV can create common bond market of CLV subregion. To developcapital market in CLV countries they also need to make a conjugation regulation and supervisory to hold transparency to investors and they need to reduce foreign exchange restriction amongthe three countries to reduce exchange rate risk among investor too.After achieving the above precondition in monetary and exchange cooperation above,CLV have two choices which are exchange rate cooperation and monetary cooperation tomultilaterally co mbat dollarization.First of all, consider the possible of future exchange regime in ASEAN+3 in the East Asianeconomic community, the CLV exchange rate cooperation can be pilot project of the biggerpicture of cooperation. CLV countries should consider the joint peg of currency to Dollar orcurrency basket of currency famously Dollar, Euro and yen while the weight of currencydepends on the mutual discussion. This common peg to Dollar is a good choice for CLVcountries because of several(prenominal) reasons despite some difficulties. First, the stable exchange rate toDollar has showed the strength of currency against outside fluctuation thus gain credibleness ofcurrency. Second, CLV already adopt restricted fluctuation of currency against Dollar and thosemain trading partner, China also already peg to Dollar. By doing this the three countries willhave less transaction cost in changing their currency to Dollar when they are doing trade and atthe same time their currency will get confid ent from people since it is stable with Dollar. On theother hand, when CLV peg to the basket of currency including Dollar, Euro and Yen, the CLVcountry can reduce risk when there is currency ball over in US. Instead of rely merely onexchange rate stability with Dollar, CLV reduce the risk by depend on two more majoreconomies, Europe and Japan. There is no cleanse proportion of the three currencies in thecurrency basket, yet it depends on the economic relation of CLV to the G3 (US, Europe andJapan) and also their own negotiation. Besides, CLV can move further to subregional currencyboard which ensures the stronger peg to foreign currency thus they get more seignioragebenefit. However, they need much more effort to achieve this. First, they have to create astronger cooperation in coordinating currency policy. Second, they need more foreign reserveto run currency board and it needs high legal endorsement to get people use local currency.In addition to cooperation in rally rate regi me, it is also important that CLV coopedto create monetary regime. The CLV common currency is a long term goal they require manyeffort from CLV to improve the credibility among public of currency as well as effectiveinstitution to handle the transitional change of currency and strong political will of CLV leaders.Besides, the CLV currency area can be launch only after the Asian Currency Unit (ACI)which is similar to European Currency Unite, has been created in ASEAN+3. When there iscommon peg to ACI in ASEAN+3 economy, the CLV will change to peg ACI and they can createtheir own subregional common currency in lower level to increase their voice in ASEANcooperation, in addition to the benefit for Exchange rate regime. However, some scholarsuggests this option is difficult to achieve at least in short and medium term because there aremany political sensitive issue to overcome, weak institution, and flexibility of people.In summary, in order to cooperate with each other so as to dedoll arize their economyCLV countries has to two choices of Exchange rate regime and single currency. Those policiesare only achievable when CLV countries have strong hindquarters of cooperation in critical aresuch economic consolation and information sharing, joint assessment and so on. They can morebenefit from this cooperation alternatively than taking action individually however it is only longtermgoal for them. In prospect there is still possibility to get out dollarization when CLV aredetermined enough in cooperation.MC5 Dollarization and Implication of Financial Architecture Reform Cambodia among CLV is solely dollarized countries in the world which face the problems. Dollarization is the common problem in developing countries such as Latin America also. Thus the case of dollarization in Cambodia can also reflect the situation of the change of financial architecture that affect the financial and monetary system in the world. Dollarization is the symptom of weak ability of dome stic financial structure, historical price in stability and political problems urges people to use foreign currency. While the government the seigniorage benefit and role of last resort of lender the people enjoy the stability of money in deposit as well as trade and investment. Rooted from the globalization there are three main debates in global financial system Does dollarization good for developing country? Should states modify people choice in using currency they like or impose people to choose national fiat money? Should IMF play important role in the world exchange rate stability? Does dollarization good for developing country? Dollarization can give price and exchange rate stability in low cost in most emergence market economy. Hanke recommend developing countries to use dollarization in case that the states do not have strong monetary and fiscal policy to tighten currency value in long term should use dollarization as monetary institution. The above idea is not raised by him alone some scholar also propose choice of dollarization because of several reasons. First, considering the financial and dept crisis during 1980s and 1990s in much part of the world and thus leads to increase of high inflation, currency devaluation and mass capital dodging by foreign investors. When developing country dollarization they can stabilize the currency, exchange rate. When those countries use a high confident and good quality currency like dollar in economy is no possibility of a sharp depreciation, and sudden capital outflows because of investor unconfident is also omitted. Second, dollarization can highly reduce transaction cost and integrate developing economy closer to US. Thirdly, the stability of dollar in the economy as currency in developing countries will encourage people to save more and foreigner to invest more. However, dollarization is costly. Government of developing countries need to scarify seigniorage benefit in dollarized economy and the Central ban k losses its role of lender of last resort to the commercial bank in case there is liquidity problems. Moreover, the states will lose its sovereignty in term of monetary policy and exchange rate policy. Thus, it is a critical decision to whether or not to dollarize in developing countries because they have to compare the benefit of dollarization the cost to bear it as well as balancing the internal risk with external risk.Should states liberalize people choice in using currency they like or impose people to choose national fiat money? According to Laurence H. Meyer, a member of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System when there is more global financial integration the government should increase role in market discipline, regulation and also supervision in money and also exchange rebate. The states should improve the international capital standard, market discipline. The state has monopolized the authorization on Money discipline by introduces national currency to show t he selfhelp system in term of currency and also gains seigniorage benefit. However, Randal Krozner, an economist at the University of Chicagos Graduate, rejects the role of government in currency circulating. He claim that private regulation found in private actors such as clearing house, credit rating agency, trader, capitalist investor, and others has provided stability and innovation because they work closely to financial and currency market. He advises that the government should reduce the intervention in the financial and monetary system and let the dynamic private sector to regulate the system. In short, while some scholar support government role in regulation the currency market, some ot

Tissue Culture Studies In Pecan Biology Essay

Tissue Culture Studies In pe washbowl Biology bear witnessIn the words of Paek and Read (2007), modern biotechnology owes lots to its resolution derived from whole kit meander culture and micro times. Gottileb Haberlandt (1902) is refer red ink to as the Father of Tissue Culture, is ofttimes cited as the origin and emergence of dress wind culture and its sequent application. Plant tissue culture techniques clear become a wakeless legal document for studying and solving basic and applied problems pertaining to agriculture, industry, environment and wellness in implant biotechnology. These techniques move over great impetus in the country of propagation (Islam, 1996). Plant tissue culture is multi-dimensional field that offers ex boo thent prospects for plant emolument and knead productivity (Jain, 2001). Since the establishment of cultivation of plants, mankind is looking for for methods that aids in the mass genesis of plants employ minimum amount of m one and on ly(a)y of propagules. The ultimate result of their enquiry leads to the development of tissue culture techniques. cedarn plants having scotch meaning ar broadly speaking dispersed by bugs. Propagation of plants with and through tissue culture has become an essential and popular technique to upchuck crops that are otherwise difficult to propagate conventionally by seed and/or vegetative means. pecan is a hardwood tree species of great economic importance for its en harvestings and usually propagated through seeds. Grafting and budding are the other conventional methods of propagating pecan tree. Due to nigh(prenominal) limitations in conventional propagation methods certain relatively newer tissue culture techniques were unquestionable for tree improvements. assorted plant parts such as apical meri base, nodal explants, cotyledons or peruse explants were utilize for micropropagation of woody trees. For mul tracele lead installment cotyledonary nodal explants gat her in been employ in tree propagation (Das et al., 1996 Pradhan et al., 1998 Das et al., 1999 Purohit et al., 2002 Walia et al., 2003). Genetic variations during unfeelingness cultures and micropropagation of trees construct likewise been report (Gupta and Varshney, 1999). Some molecular markers such as RAPD and AFLP has been besides been used to detect genetic variations among in vitro clones (Gangopadhyay et al., 2003).In vitro studies for pecan improvement throughout the world are generally scanty. Tissue culture techniques arrest been developed for several tree crops, precisely previous efforts with Pecan have shown that it is difficult to propagate by in vitro methods ( woodwind, 1982). These techniques have been used in Pecan mainly for the purpose of clonal propagation. Despite the fact that it is likewise install in Northern empyreans of Pakistan (Abbotabad). So far, nonhing has been done for its developing and multiplication in Pakistan. There is to-date a s hort-fall in Pecan nut case and its products throughout the world because of the lack of rapid micropropagation methods for this tree species and disease flame during the last two decades.Various aspects of look into on Pecan includes studies on propagation (metalworker et al., 1974), seed germination and dormancy (Dimalla and Van Staden, 1977), micropropagation (Hansen and Lazarte, 1984), seed evolution and germination (Wood, 1984), somatic fertilized egggenesis (Rodriguez and Wetzstein, 1988), extrinsic trans governance (Long et al., 1995), cell suspension cultures ( fire and Wetzstein, 1997), atomic consider 25 deficiency (Smith and Cheary, 2001), launch of Zinc supply on growth and food uptake (Kim et al., 2002a), effect of nitrogen form and nutrient uptake (Kim et al., 2002b), forcing bring tips and epicormic/ recentnt buds (Preece and Read, 2003).In this section a brief review of kick the bucket is given in a manner so as to graduate(prenominal)light the curren t status of the research work in Pecan tissue culture.2.1.1 MicropropagationMicropropagation is the art and science of plant multiplication in vitro (McCown and McCown, 1999). As a concept, micropropagation was first presented to the scientific community in 1960 by Morel producing virus-free Cymbidiums. Micropropagation is a sophisticate technique for the rapid and tremendous-scale propagation of m whatsoever tree species. It has a great commercial electromotive withdraw due to extremely steep speed up of multiplication, the high plant quality and the ability to declare disease-free plants. Micropropagation has been applied to several woody tree species (Bonga and Von Aderkas, 1992). Generally, woody plants are recalcitrant to in vitro re contemporaries (McCown, 2000). The pertinency of micropropagation for woody trees has been confirmed feasible since the aspects of the sy origin have ceremonious that trees produced by this method are similar to those produced by tralatiti ous methods (Lineberger, 1980). Furthermore, Lineberger (1980) however, set forth that the major impact of plant tissue culture will not be felt in the area of micropropagation, however in the area of controlled manipulations of plants at the cellular level.Many workers have account propagation of Pecan through conventional methods (Smith et al., 1974 Brutsch et al., 1977). However these methods suffer several limitations thus pull up stakes few propagules from selected individuals (Tiwari et al., 2002). several(prenominal) efforts at Pecan tissue culture were describe by Smith (1977) and Knox (1980) but neither was successful in establishing plants in soil. However, Knox obtained few palls and plantlets when inverted nodal cuttings were used in vitro which upon transplanting did not survive. Later, Knox and Smith (1981) success richly proliferated in vitro wing-shaped worsts of Pecan using seedling explants. Success was exceptional to the organic law of hardness with onl y few strikes and root formation. Major drawbacks to clonally propagate Pecan are the poor rooting and their excerpt rate afterwards transplanting to greenhouse (Brutsch et al., 1976).In 1982, Wood successfully induce slay proliferation in axillary buds of nodal explants and report that synthetic hormones with combination of 4.0 mg/ lambert BA and 1.0 mg/ cubic decimetre IBA were most effective for shoot proliferation. Gibberellic sour (GA3) at 3.0 mg/ litre plus 0.1 mg/ litre. BA excessively enhanced shoot elongation although he was unable to subculture shoots and rooting was not achieved. In another(prenominal)(prenominal) work per organize by Hansen and Lazarte (1982) shoots were proliferated from teen Pecan in vitro and limited success was reported in terms of rooting.Hansen and Lazarte (1984) obtained single customer cuttings from 2-month-old Pecan seedlings and bring forth bud break to from sevenfold shoots on liquefiable WPM and 2 % glucose supplemented with 3.0 mg/ litre 6-Benzylamino purine (BA). The shoots developed in vitro extrinsic roots and showed vigorous root system with profuse lateral pronged from primary roots on transferring to soil after soaking in 10 mg/ litre IBA for 8 days.Corte-Olivares and co-workers (1990a) reported a performance for propagating Pecan using explants from adult trees. They collected nodal explant material during two attendant eons from grafted Western Schley trees. Specific trees representing the vegetative manikin, partially bearing phase and fully bearing phase were identified and three collections of axillary buds were made from them all(prenominal) year. Buds were cultured on Dunstan and Short (1977) basal average supplemented with 0.51 mM ascorbic demigod and 4.4 M BA. They found severe contamination problem which resulted in the info that was not amenable to statistical analysis in five of half-dozen collections of explants. Even so, in one of these five collections, shoot development an d multiplication was observe during second and third culture passages from transitional tree objet dart in four collections from teenage tree explants. Amenable data found in one or six collections where explants of all three-donor tree phase responded with shoot multiplication. The results of this preliminary study indicated that selected adult phenol types had a potential for clonally micropropagating Pecan.2.1.2 corporeal EmbryogenesisSomatic fertilized egggenesis has been known in tissue cultures of a replete(p) range of higher plants, including two angiosperms and gymnosperms (Halperin, 1995). Somatic fertilized egggenesis is a valuable tool of interest in plant biotechnology for its potential applications in clonal propagation, genetic transformation and studies involving embryo development. In step-up, somatic embryogenesis is also used for renew transgenic trees. It involves the development of somatic cells into embryos, which proceeds through a period of morphologi cal set ups that resembles zygotic embryogenesis (Dodeman et al., 1997 Dong and Dunstan, 1999). It has been reported in several moderate and tropical tree species (Gain and Gupta, 2005).It is reported that many species of tropical fruit trees could produce somatic embryos in tissue culture (Litz, 1985). In another study, equable fruit species including apple, sweetened cherry, grapes, guava etc. have also been reported to produce somatic embryos (Tisserat et al., 1979 Ammirato, 1983 Rai et al., 2007). A successful somatic embryogenesis has been reported in members of the Pecan (Carya illinoensis) family (Juglandaceae), i.e., genus Juglans nigra, Juglans hindsii using immature zygotic embryo explants (Tulecke and McGranahan, 1985). However, the application of somatic embryogenesis for the improvement of Pecan is still limited as a result of problems with showtime initiation frequencies, maintenance of embryogenic cell tilts and first base rebirth rates.Somatic embryogenesis is best known as an alternative thoroughfare to propagate Pecan via methods of tissue culture mainly due to high multiplication rates, formation of organized root and shoot axes and feasibility of mechanization. A number of studies have focused on Pecan somatic embryogenesis and renewing to complete plantlets (Merkle et al., 1987 Wetzstein et al., 1988 1989 1990 Corte-Olivares et al., 1990b and Yates and Reilly, 1990). Somatic embryogenesis has been used for induced regeneration from in vitro tissue culture, occurring in straight off from callousness, cell suspension, or protoplast culture or bringly from cells of an organized structure such as stem segment or zygotic embryo (Williams and Maheswaran, 1986). They also described the fundamental homologies amidst direct and indirect somatic embryogenesis and between single cell and multiple cell initiation. The observed conception of morphogenesis depends whether a group of cells establish and maintain duplicate behavior and influ enced by factors, which affect intercellular communication. McGranahan et al., (1987) obtained genetic transformation using somatic embryogenic cultures in Juglans. Wetzstein et al., (1996) suggested that somatic embryogenesis has the potential for propagating Pecan rootstocks and useful in introducing genes of commercial interest.Merkle et al., (1987) induced somatic embryogenesis from immature zygotic embryos of Pecan cultivars Stuart and Desirable, in spite of appearance one month following transfer from circumscribed WPM with 2.0mg/litre 2, 4-D and 0.25 mg/litre BA in the light to hormone-free medium in the dark but with low embryogenic relative frequency. Wetzstein and co-workers (1988) however, im turn out the embryogenic frequency up to 40 % for some explants sampling stages of Pecan.In another study, Wetzstein and co-workers (1989) examined the effect of cultivars, sampling date, tree ancestor of explants and duration on learn medium for the optimum yield of somatic em bryos in two cvs. (Stuart and Desirable) of Pecan. Significant variations in embryogenic reception were observed in both the cultivars. A short term exposure to 2, 4-D was shown to be quite adequate for embryogenesis in Pecan. Immature zygotic embryos collected in a developmental stage of rapid cotyledon expansion showed highest embryogenic response, i.e., 54.7 % in Desirable and 85.2 % in Stuart. No signification effect of duration on conditioning medium on embryogenic response was observed in both the cultivars. In Stuart, effect of different trees as explant stems was not significant but found significant in Desirable. However, plant regeneration and transplantation remained a limiting factor.Later, Corte-Olivares and co-workers (1990b) reported the induction of somatic embryogenesis in two cultivars (Western Schley and Wichita) with low developmental frequencies into complete plantlets. Growth regulators with different combinations had a significant effect on induction of embr yogenic callus. They proved that medium containing 2, 4-D was most effective for the induction of embryogenesis. The individual shoots isolated from shoot multiplication cultures were rooted with 49 % frequency upon culture for 4 weeks on BDS (Dunstan and Short) medium containing 14.8M IBA. Their results indicated the potential to successfully obtain complete plants from Pecan somatic embryos.Studies of Yates and Reilly (1990) on relation of cultivars response on somatic embryogenesis and ensuant plant development revealed that explants of micropylar character when removed from fruits in the smooth endosperm stage were more embryogenic than the intact ovules. strong suit containing auxin alone or auxin and cytokinins produced more somatic embryos than medium containing cytokinin alone.Furthermore, Wetzstein et al., (1990) examined make of zygotic embryo explanting time and auxin type on somatic embryogenesis during conditioning in Pecan (Carya illinoensis). Maximum embryogenesi s was observed after 15 weeks domiciliate pollination. Percent somatic embryogenesis and embryo form was significantly affected by auxin type and concentration but not the embryogenic efficiency. MS medium proved to be better than WPM for embryo germination.In another evoke study, Mathews and Wetzstein (1993) established new methods to increase plant regeneration by crying secondary embryos formation which can efficiently produce large number of clonal plants suitable for establishment in greenhouse. Silver nitrate (29.43 M) incorporation to WPM and application of 6-benzylaminopurine (100 M) on shoot apices increased maximum shoot regeneration frequency with average frequency (20 %) of plantlet conversion up to a maximum of 71 % in cv. Mahan. Later, 70 80 % of the restituted plants attained curing stage and 99 % of hardened plants were established successfully in the greenhouse.Later, Rodriguez and Wetzstein (1994) investigated callus action, embryo formation and embryo wor d structure in Pecan. Explants were cultured for one week on WPM with either NAA or 2, 4-D at a concentration of 2, 6 or 12 mg/litre and then subcultured on fresh basal medium. The best auxin intercession was 6 mg/l NAA in the induction medium, with 100 % somatic embryogenesis in cv. Stuart. Somatic embryos induced by NAA were shown to have relatively normal morphology than those induced by 2, 4-D. They reported that somatic embryo morphology affects plantlet conversion and NAA proved to be a superior auxin than 2, 4-D for the production of somatic embryos and their subsequent conversion to plants.In 1998, Rodriguez and Wetzstein critically compared morphological and histological aspects of Pecan somatic embryos induced on media with NAA or 2, 4-D. The media containing NAA or 2, 4-D has shown significant differences in the timing and pattern of initiation and development of somatic embryos. Embryos derived from callus cultures on NAA had normal morphology while those derived from cultures on 2, 4-D had higher incidences of abnormalities. Their study strongly revealed the multicelluar origin of embryos in contrast to earlier studies of somatic embryogenesis where embryos were defined as having single-cell origin (Street and Withers, 1974).Yates and Wood (1989) demonstrated organogenesis from immature embryonic axes in vitro in Pecan. Highest number of normal plants was produced from medium containing IBA, BA and kinetin at 0.5, 4.4 and 9.3 M respectively. Shoots only were produced on a medium containing cytokinins only and rooting was observed on medium with no cytokinins. In cv. Desirable greatest number of axillary shoots were elongated from embryo axes on a medium containing cytokinin only, but both with auxin and cytokinins opposite cv. Stuart.Later, Obeidy and Smith (1993), investigated organogenesis from mature Pecan cotyledons and embryonic axes. Embryonic axes at cotyledonary nodes formed 85 % microshoots and 30 % were rooted on an auxin-free medium after pre-culture in a medium with 20 M IBA. Adventitious buds emerged on callus surface previously produced on medium containing TDZ (25 M) from cotyledonary nodes and radicals.Kumar and Sharma (2005) induced somatic embryos from cotyledon explants of Walnut and Pecan. They cryopreserved these somatic embryos using non-toxic cryoprotectants, i.e., DMSO, glycerol and ethylene glycol and evaluated their choice percentage. Maximum survival percentage was observed with 5 % DMSO, 1.5 % glycerol and 3% ethylene glycol pre-treatment. In contrast, higher sucrose levels diminish survival rate and the embryos became necrotic. However, sucrose-desiccated somatic embryos pretreated with cryoprotectants survived better after one day in the liquid nitrogen.Somatic embryogenesis can be applied for efficient plant regeneration systems. It may also be utilized for introducing the genes of interest. molecular(a) markers can be used as a means of evaluating genetic stability of plants regenerated through tissue culture. Somatic embryos exhibit morphological features similar to zygotic embryos. Abnormal developments, however, frequently been observed and genetic fidelity of embryos is unknown. Therefore, the genetic fidelity of culture must be evaluated before somatic embryogenesis can be exploited. In such an interesting research work, Vendrame et al., (1999) evaluated the applicability of using AFLP analysis to assess the genetic variability in somatic embryos of Pecan (Carya illinoensis) and compared between and within embryogenic culture lines. They revealed that individual embryos derived from the same culture line exhibited high similarity and could be grouped together. However, within a culture line some embryo-to-embryo differences were also observed. They concluded that AFLP can be used as a reproducible technique to check the genetic variation among Pecan somatic embryo cultures. Larkin and Scowcroft (1981) were the first who designated variations in tissue-cultur e-derived plants as somaclonal variations. Somaclonal variations were also discover in Peach regenerates when developed from two different embryo callus cultures using RAPD (Hashmi et al., 1997). They suggested that genetic changes occurred during tissue culture. Brown et al., (1993) were also successful in genetically distinguishing among wheat suspension culture lines and also among regenerated plants through RAPD.Several studies have been reported to the use of molecular markers in at a lower placestanding the Pecan genome. The genetic diversity of Pecan populations through isozyme system has been demonstrated by Marquard 1987, 1991 Marquard, et al., 1995 Ruter et al., 2000, 2001). Conner and Wood (2001) employed RAPDs for the identification of Pecan cultivars and estimate their genetic cogitateness. The molecular evaluation of Pecan trees regenerated from somatic embryogenic cultures was carried out by Vendrame et al., (2000) using AFLPs. Grauke, et al., (2001) reported mean 2C genomic size of Pecan to be approximately 1.7 pg. Later, in another study, Grauke et al., (2003) evaluated simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers for the genetic study of Pecan. Crespel et al., (2002) stated that molecular markers are valuable in perennial crops for the construction of linkage maps. Molecular linkage maps are successfully employed in many crops for tell germplasm improvement (Pearl et al., 2004). Recently, molecular linkage maps of several tree fruit and nut crops have also been produced, including Pear (Yamamoto et al., 2002), Apricot (Lambert et al., 2004) and Walnut (Fjellstrom and Parfitt, 1994). In such another interesting work, Beedanagari et al., (2005) reported a first genetic linkage map of Pecan using RAPD and AFLP markers. These maps are an important first amount towards the detection of genes controlling horticulturally important characters such as nut size, maturity date, kernel quality and disease resistant (Conner, 1999).To initiate however work on Pecan, somatic embryogenesis has also been attempted by using cell suspension cultures. Regenerable suspension cultures established an attractive tool for the production of clonal plants and in studies involving genetic transformation. Previously, repetitive somatic embryogenesis was first reported in Pecan (Merkle et al., 1987) on solidified medium. Later, a number of research workers have improved the quantity (Wetzstein et al., 1989 Yates and Reilly, 1990) and quality (Wetzstein et al., 1990) of the somatic embryos through modified culture media and conditions. Though many improvement of the cultured media, not any previous report represented the development of somatic embryos in liquid medium. In liquid suspensions, synchronized development of the embryogenic cultures was one of the major favor over the solidified cultures.In tissue cultures of Pecan, stable embryogenic suspensions have been developed by Burns and Wetzstein (1994). They induced pre-globular stage embryo mass es on hormone-free liquid suspension cultures of Pecan to develop into somatic embryos on semi-solid medium. establish of modified solid medium (various combinations of ABA, Maltose, casein hydrolysate and filter paper overlays) treatments on somatic embryo storage reserve accumulation was investigated. Embryos analyzed for triglycerides and protein table of contents showed significant reserve deposition for some treatments but associated with undesirable deterioration in embryo morphology. The treatment that enhances the reserve accumulation was identified promoting plant recovery from suspension-derived Pecan somatic embryos.Later, in another interesting work, Burns and Wetzstein (1997) developed a method for the establishment and proliferation of developmentally stable, embryogenic Pecan suspension cultures, presenting a major improvement in embryogenic tissue culture in Juglandaceae. The established suspension cultures consisted of a mixture of pre-globular, globular stage emb ryo aggregates and freely suspended globular embryos. Their studies revealed that cultures were repetitively embryogenic and proliferated in growth-regulator-free medium. Repetitive embryogenic cultures have also been reported in Juglans regia (Tulecke and McGranahan, 1985) and Juglans nigra (Neuman et al., 1993 Preece et al., 1995), related members of the family Juglandaceae.2.1.4 Adventitious RegenerationAdventitious regeneration means the production of extrinsic shoots and buds from tissue other than axillary buds, e.g., the cotyledonary explants. The most common explants for adventitious regeneration of woody plants are cotyledons. They may either be from mature or immature seeds and leaf tissue from in vitro cultures. Although adventitious regeneration is generally undesirable for clonal micropropagation, it can represent an excellent opportunity to regenerate plants from various tissues. Also the propagation rates can be much higher than axillary shoot formation (Chun, 1993). Adventitious shoot formation can also be used for overcoming reproductive barrier caused by sterile male/ female plants (Kantia and Kothari, 2002).Conventional propagation techniques for woody fruit species are slow and possess several difficulties due to long generation cycles and high level of heterozygosity (Sriskandarajah, et al., 1994). There is a need to develop in vitro methods that could be available to speed up the breeding process for crop improvement. Many woody plant species resisted the establishment of an efficient system for regenerating plantlets due to genetically driven in vitro recalcitrance (McCown, 2000 Shing et al., 2002). However, in vitro adventitious regeneration has been achieved from various plants of several woody tree species (Maggon and Singh, 1996 Nagori and Purohit, 2004). It was reported that under identical conditions the shoot regeneration percentage varied depending on the source and type of explants used (Gentile et al., 2002 Grant and Hammatt, 2000). A higher percentage of shoot regeneration was attained from juvenile leaf explants as compared to adult leaves in Prunus dulcis (Miguel et al., 1996). Regeneration has also been achieved from the leaves of apricot (Burgos and Alburquerque, 2003), black cherry (Hammatt and Grant, 1998) and sweet cherry (Matt and Jehle, 2005). Regeneration of adventitious shoots has been reported from immature cotyledons of Peach (Yan and Zhou, 2002) and almond (Ainsley et al., 2001). In addition, regeneration using mature cotyledons has been reported for Peach (Pooler and Scorza, 1995), cosmetic cherries (Hokanson and Pooler, 2000) and sweet cherry (Canli and Tian, 2008). Regeneration through adventitious shoot formation was achieved in Feronia limonia using hypocotyls segments by Singhvi (1997).In vitro studies for Pecan improvement throughout the world are scanty. However, adventitious regeneration was reported in some members of the family Juglandaceae, e.g., Juglans nigra (Neuman et al., 1993) and Juglans regia (Chvojka and Reslova, 1987). This phenomenon may be of particular significance for extremely recalcitrant woody plant species such as Pecan also.Long et al., (1995) reported an unexpected observation that was the production of adventitious shoots from the cotyledonary explants of Juglans nigra, placed on WPM medium containing 2, 4-D and TDZ. Obeidy and Smith (1993) showed similar adventitious buds arising from callus cultures of mature Pecan (Carya illinoensis) embryonic tissues. Their shoots were regenerated from explants placed on MS medium with 25 M TDZ.Later, in the experimental work of Neuman et al., (1993), no shoot organogenesis were recorded when immature cotyledonary explants were placed on WPM medium containing 2, 4-D and TDZ. However, Preece observed shoot organogenesis in Juglans nigra (unpublished data) from cotyledonary explants placed on WPM medium containing 2, 4-D and TDZ. Adventitious shoots were readily multiplied through axillary shoot pro liferation. Biotechnology utilizing adventitious regeneration may also present a new opportunity for the improvement of woody plant species.2.1.5 fable Micropropagation MethodsPrevious tissue culture work involved micropropagation of cuttings obtained from seedlings or buds of trees big(a) under field conditions. The rooting of these shoots is slow or they may not be rooted as well. On the other hand, contamination was another major constraint encountered when these shoots are used for in vitro cultures. Shoots taken from open-air(prenominal) usually have microbes in tiny cracks of bark, not removed through disinfestations causing in vitro contamination of cultures (Preece and Read, 2003). Therefore, some other relatively newer techniques have been developed that utilizes the parts of the plants (branch tips and/ or stem segments) during dormant season and force new growths in a greenhouse environment. These techniques, such as shoot forcing as well as forcing epicormic buds may provide a breakthrough in the micropropagation of woody plants as well as for herbaceous species. These forcing techniques also have the potential for commercial propagation of plants. Research has been conducted on shoot forcing for years but much focus was on shoot tip harvested from trees and shrubs during the dormant season (Read and Yang, 1991). For heap shoot forcing, shoot tips of specific aloofness (20-25 cm long) were cut, surface disinfested and placed in a dissolving agent containing 8- hydroxyquinoline turn (8-HQC) and different growth regulators (Yang and Read, 1992, 1993). On the other hand, large branches (40 cm long) excised from juvenile portions of the trees and shrubs can also be used to force plenty shoots on a greenhouse media (Harmer, 1988 Cameron and Sani, 1994, Henry and Preece, 1997a, b). No forcing solution is used in this technique. These forced softwood shoots can be rooted as stem cuttings (Henry and Preece, 1997a). Softwood shoots can also be util ized as explants source for in vitro studies and micropropagation (Preece, 2003).Clonal propagation is achieved by culturing nodal explants taken from in vitro seedlings or form field-grown adult trees. Hence, for in vitro establishment of softwood shoots, there is a need to obtain explants with minimum of contamination. Read and Yang, (1988, 1989) disinfested the shoot tips treating with a solution of 0.78 % NaOCl containing Tween-20. Shoot tips were forced by placing in a forcing solution containing BA and GA3. They reported that the use of GA3 favored bud break and consequently increases multiple shoot production under in vitro conditions.Read and Yang (1991) later, forced softwood shoots from privet (Ligustrum vulgaris) and arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum) and tested different growth regulators in forcing solution for rooting of softwood cuttings. They reported that IBA increased number of roots per cuttings for both plants while root length increased only in Privet. On the other hand, GA3 decreased number of roots per cutting as well as bring down root length.Similarly, in another study, Read and Yang (1992) reported the influence of pre-forcing treatment on bud break and shoot elongation of lilac, Privet and Vanhoutte spiraea. Their results revealed that pre-forcing treatments increased the percent bud break by 20 % and shoots were elongated 3.0 mm greater as compared to control. However, pre-treatment effect differed with the plant species.In 1993, Yang and Read forced Vanhoutte spirea stems in forcing solution containing 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8-HQC), 2 % sucrose with different levels of BA and GA3 to observe their effects on in vitro cultures. They revealed that LS (Linsmaier and Skoog, 1965) medium supplemented with 5 M BAP or 5 M BAP + 1 or 5 M IAA was found to be superior for the shoot forcing in Vanhoutte spirea. BAP addition to forcing solution enhanced shoot proliferation while GA3 reduces shoot establishment in vitro.Large stem segments ha ving epicormic (dormant, latent or suppressed) buds cut during the dormant season can also be forced by placing in a suitable glasshouse medium. Large numbers of epicormic buds are present on stems of several woody tree species. Softwood shoots developed from epicormic buds on large stem segments can be used as stem cuttings in nursery industry (Cameron and Sani, 1994 Henry and Preece, 1997b).Henry and Preece, (1997a) investigated the production of softwood shoots and their subsequent rooting from maple species. The percentage of softwood shoot production varied comfortably within the species and clones of genus Acer. However, greater (59 %) number of softwood shoots was rooted in red maple as compare to either in sugar (15 %) or Japanese maple (26 %). Furthermore, Henry and Preece, (1997b) studied the influence of length and diameter of large stem segments on the production of softwood shoots from epicormic buds of selected species of genus Acer. They concluded that both stem leng th and diameter influenced the production of softwood shoots. Their study revealed that stem segments ranging from 30 40 cm long with 5.2 7.6 diameters were best for the softwood shoot production.Preece et al., (2002) developed a system for the production of softwood cuttings during the dormant season. It provides a longer exploitation season to force and root softwood segments in mid to late winter during the year of propagation for plant growth, hence, advantageous over traditional propagation methods. They suggested that intermittent mist provides the most effective forcing environment. Juvenility seems to be an important factor and it is easier to propagate plants in the juvenile growth stage than the adult phase. Similarly, microshoots originated from adult black walnut were hard to root than that of juvenile origin (Heile

Socrates In Platos Apology Philosophy Essay

Socrates In Platos Apology Philosophy EssayIn this try I will discuss the char good turner of Socrates as he is presented in the Apology, I will look at Socrates as a ghostly daemon and an apostle of movement. I will extend an stock from my own in the flesh(predicate) stance that the character of Socrates in the Apology is a variation of some(prenominal) phantasmal fanatic and apostle of crusade. I will also make source to Crito in coiffe to gird my position that Socrates is indeed a ghostly man of agreement. First I sh on the whole discuss the Apology and provide examples to strengthen my argument that Socrates is a man of religion and reason. Secondly I shall provide examples from Crito showing that Socrates is a moral and just philosopher.In Platos Apology, Socrates says to the jury that if they state to him, Socrates, we do not believe Anytus now we acquit you, but completely on condition that you spend no more time on this investigation and do not practice philos ophy (Socrates 29c-d, 2012), he would kind of obey deity than the men of capital of Greece and practice philosophy as long as he is breathing. Socrates would continue to straits the Athenian citizens near wisdom, truth, and the best state for bingles intellect, proving that wealth, reputation, and honor be not the most big things in life. According to Socrates, fulfilling his obligation to god is more important than what the law may tell him to do because in practicing philosophy, he is serving god. Be sure that this is what the god orders me to do, and I think there is no greater blessing for the city than my military service to the god, (Socrates 30a, 2012). By sentencing Socrates, the men of capital of Greece ar mistreating gods gift to them because god himself attached Socrates to the city in order for him to oppugn those he encounters. By teaching them about virtue and how important the soul is, Socrates shows them how to live the good life and live it well. As a s ettlement of Socrates world given to Athens as a gift from god to question the Athenians to enlighten them and bring about positive outcomes, he is authorize to disobey the courts verdict.If he was breakout the law and harming Athens it would be vituperate and immoral, but because god sent him to do this duty, he must vote down every obstacle in his demeanor to do so. There is no inconsistency between what he says in Crito about upholding the laws and never breaking them. What Socrates says in Platos Apology proves that he has found a common priming between reason and religion. Therefore, Socrates is both a religious fanatic and apostle of reason. and then Socrates argument to continue practicing philosophy even if the men of Athens dominion that he should not, is completely justifiable and moral. The divinitys placed Socrates in Athens to act as a gadfly stinging Athens in order to wake up the lazy Athenian citizens. Socrates is acting as an apostle of reason and religiou s fanatic when he challenged the wise men of Athens. After receiving a prophecy from the god at Delphi (Socrates 20e, 2012), that he is the wisest of all men, Socrates concludes that he knows zilch so he must be the wisest in the sense that he knows nothing for sure. By challenging the wisest of Athens he follows the Gods wishes in a reasonable way. Through argument, question, and discussion, Socrates exposes false wisdom as ignorance which I vie is fulfilling his obligation to the Gods and reason.Socrates believed that he was following the gods plan for him it was his moral obligation to question those who claim to be wise. As a philosopher one ought to act as an apostle of reason, whether it is to argue against the government to determine whether a law or humor is justified or completely wrong and determine through reason how to replace it with a new law or root that has been proven to be correct. A Philosopher is a lover of wisdom which follows the obligation to cross-examine concourse in order to find out where or not that are wise or just ignorant. As a religious fanatic and apostle of reason Socrates attempted to teach people he argued with that instead of claiming to be wise and arguing for their ideas without reason along with claiming that any previous idea contradictory to theirs was wrong, one should be open to all objections because we are all truly ignorant. In the Apology, Socrates attempted to persuade people through argument and reason to question everything because not everything can be answered by saying, God did it.In order to strengthen my argument I shall refer to examples from Crito proving that Socrates is a variation of apostle of reason and religious fanatic. Socrates states that doing wrong to someone is wrong therefore it is immoral. Similar to the Apology, Socrates uses reason to prove his point. Escaping Athens and going against its verdict is ignore the law, which is immoral and unjust. Socrates makes a connection between t he laws of Athens and morals. By escaping, Socrates would be acting against the laws of Athens and disregarding everything he stood for up to this point. By scating, Socrates would suppress the citys laws and through the city, all of its citizens. This relationship between a citizen and the city is kindred to the relationship between a parent and child. From the city, Socrates was brought to birth, was it not through us that your father married your mother and begat you? (Socrates 50d, 2012). Athens instructed Socrates father to corroborate him an upbringing and do sure he was nurtured. Socrates cannot deny that he was brought up world properly educated and nurtured by Athens, therefore he cannot deny being an offspring and servant to it. Just like Socrates is on equal dry land with his father, he must respect his superiors wishes. If his father scolded him or beat him, he would not do the same in return to his father because he is superior. From birth Socrates was taught to obey the laws of Athens like his parents did.The laws of Athens should be respected just as much as one does their parent. Your parents teach you what is decent and what is wrong, thus it is immoral to disrespect or treat your parents poorly as it is them that have invested in you and raised you into the person that you are. Due to the fact that Socrates is an apostle of reason he cannot go against his parents actions/wishes, he cannot do the same even to Athens because Athens is more sacred than your mother and father and it is to be revered. redden if one feels the sentence was unjust, they should not do anything in return, according to Socrates No Harm linguistic rule. This principle is one of the two fundamental principles needed for a city to function properly. It states, One should never do wrong in return, nor do any man harm, no matter what he may have done to you, (Socrates 49c, 2012). The other fundamental principle is the Just-Agreement Principle which maintains that when one has come to an agreement that is just with someone, they should fulfill it and not cheat on it. By leaving Athens, Socrates will break the Just Agreement Principle and be doing harm which goes against both his principles. If no one obeyed these principles, the citizens would no long-lasting obey the laws and the city would not exist. By be in Athens and accepting stopping point Socrates shows he truly loves and respects Athens. In death one will receive peace but if one were to flee and attempt to destroy the laws which hold Athens together, they will be judged harshly and have a rough welcoming in Hades, according to Socrates.Thus, Socrates believed it was forever and a day wrong to disobey the laws. According to Socrates the only rational and reasonable way is to accept the punishment given by the law, regardless of what it is. The objective of having laws in place is to teach virtue to those who inhabit the city. The rules which are implemented in the laws act as an outline for how to behave. The laws direct behaviour, censure, and praise in much(prenominal) a way that ensures that the citizens within the city will go subsequently positive goals and partake in positive activities in order to declare the city secure. The fact that Socrates would rather stay in Athens and dash rather than flee and love proves that he is an apostle of reason. I believe that by Socrates following through with his death sentence ordered by the Athenians, he proved that he is wise and he stood up for what he believes in. Socrates made a wise decision by refusing to escape and accept his death sentence. If Socrates would have decided to flee Athens to avoid his sentence he would not be an apostle of reason Socrates would not have been able to get his point across. I will also argue that by remaining in Athens rather than escaping it solidifies my argument that Socrates is also a religious fanatic. The gods placed him in Athens for a reason and Socrates fulfille d his service for the gods until his last breath.Work CitedPlato . A PLATO READER Eight Essential Dialogues Apology. Ed. C. D. C. Reeve. capital of Indiana/Cambridge Hackett make Company, Inc., 2012. 21-46. Print.Plato . A PLATO READER Eight Essential Dialogues Crito. Ed. C. D. C. Reeve. Indianapolis/Cambridge Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2012. 47-59. Print.

Applications of 3D Printing Technology

Applications of 3D bring on TechnologyLara SoueidAbstractWhat if we could simply yarn-dye a b wholeness when we realize a shattered one? This has presently become possible due to the ternary-dimensional (3D) mental picture innovation.3D technologyIn our days, technology is progress at a very rapid pace. Out of the many novel innovations is the leash dimensional (3D) technology. It has been exploited in various industries such(prenominal) as the movie drudgery, television, calculators, and correspondents industries. This technology has just recently been introduced into the medical field, much specifically, the 3D printers (Walker A, 2013). there ar various medical applications of the 3D printers some of these are to print prosthetic limbs, and implants. So far, there are many advantages, yet in any case a few disadvantages to the latter(prenominal).The three dimensional technology relies on the fact that we see things in 3D by our eyeball in our daily, that is w e visualize targets by their width, length and depth (3deyehealth.org June12, 2014). The outgrowth by which our eye perceive three dimensional images from two steeply analogous overlaid images was outset described by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838 (Sniderman Z, 2011). Another name for 3D is stereoscopic vision it explains how our eyes and our brain create an conceit of a third dimension. Our eyes are approximately 50-75mm a relegate, hence each eye perceives a reasonably different image which the brain merges using some high supply geometry which is basically the 3D c erstwhilept (Sniderman Z, 2011).Modern 3D technology is severe to replicate what the brain does to merge the images. This technology tricks the brain in differentiate to perceive two different images from the same source (Wong KV, Hernandez A, 2012). in that location are fourfold uses of the 3D technology, chief(prenominal)ly architecture, the movie industry, opinion and gaming (Sniderman Z, 2011). 3D ef fect has recently been on the rise, these machines are able to make anything from simple heartys. By doing so they replace traditional factory production lines and make boththing in life much easier, a person can easily print a cup or chair, or even a dramatics (Walker A, 2013).3D printing technologiesThere are various 3D printing technologies universe utilise, namely selective laser sintering (SLS), f utilise deposition modeling (FDM) and stereolithography (SLA) (Pravas VS, 2013). The SLS printers use a very powerful laser in order to heat and bind the printing material into the required 3D target area by scanning the cross sections generated from the 3D digital register. When each cross section is scanned, the powder bed is automatically lowered one grade obtuseness and new material is placed above it. The object is surrounded and supported by the same powder it is made from. This affect is repeated until the object is complete (Deckard C, Beaman J, Bourell D, 2012).Fig ure 1 Selective laser Sintering functioning, Martello.co.uk, June 12, 2014.The indorse type is the FDM printers, these printers use a process by which thick(p) filaments are melted and forced through a heated nib which forms the object. Once the first layer is formed, the base is lowered and the second gear layer begins forming and fusing with the first layer. However un standardized the SLS, these printers require two different materials, the thick filaments in order to make the object and a support material which surrounds and supports the object while it is being made (Deckard et al., 2012).Figure 2 amalgamate Deposition Modeling process, 3dprinterplans.info, June 12, 2014.The last type of printers are the SLA printers, these printers use fluidness photopolymer resin as the basic material. Photopolymers are materials that are sensitive to luminance, once exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, they will immediately harden. The UV laser diffuse traces a cross section of the ob ject onto the resin, which immediately curs when it is exposed to the light (3ders.org, March 14, 2013). The base consequently lowers and the top is coated with more resin which again gets exposed to UV light hence hardens and mends to the lower layer. This process is repeated until the object is completed (Deckard et al., 2012).Figure 3 Stereolithography printing process. Pravas VS, 2013.The latter are all additive manufacturing processes which require the help of computers. The 3D object blueprint to be printed essential first be modeled three dimensionally on a computer software, most commonly using the computer aided design (CAD) software. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), as wellspring as computed tomography (CT) scan can also be use (Pravas VS, 2013). The CAD file is born-again into a Standard Tessellation Language (STL) file which transforms the geometry into small triangles, a header, or a triplet list of x, y and z coordinates. This file is wherefore sliced into cross sections exactly as the printer will print, this file is called a G-Code file which can now be directly interpreted by the printer (Wong KV, Hernandez A, 2012).Table 1 Comparison of 3D printing processes. (3dprinteplans.info, June 12, 2014)There are various applications to 3D printing, such as architecture, automotive, engineering, fashion and numerous others. However the most grave applications are the use of 3D printers in medicine to produce implants and prosthetics (3dprinterplans.info, 2014, June 12). throughout the world, poverty is increasing and living termss as well as the medical costs are also increasing. A prosthetic fortify for an amputee would cost on average $3,000 to $30,000 depending on the uncomplainings age, activities, affair and his health hence making it impossible for anyone except the rich tribe to be able to buy a prosthetic work up or foot (Turner R, 2009).Lucky for the third world countries people, as well as the middle class people, a novel technol ogy will make the latter issue. The innovation of the 3D printers has and will change many lives. The process of printing a prosthetic hand relies on the FDM technology. The material used is most often high-performance thermoplastics which are biocompatible, and the average price of a 3D printed prosthetic arm is about $200 (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). The 3D production of prosthetics is not only cheaper, faster and more practical, it is a revolution which allows every amputee of living a normal life again.The main problem in producing a prosthetic arm or leg is the need of a blueprint or prototype. The patients limb is scanned using a CT scanner or a laser-based scanner, this image is then converted into a G-Code file which can be directly printed by the printer in order to produce a new very equal limb (Andrews TM, 2013). There was also a problem of printing the socket (the part that will be attached to the amputated limb) accurately (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). However th is has all been single-minded by the open end prototypes and blueprints available for everyone to use (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12).Sydney Kendall is a long dozen year old girl from St.Louis, her right arm was amputated due to a boating accident when she was six years old. Senior students in the majuscule University in St.Louis studying biomedical engineering printed a prosthetic arm using plastic as the raw material for Sydney. The total cost was only $200. This prosthetic is powered by a battery and controlled by an accelerometer allowing her to move her prosthetic fingers (Washington University in St.Louis Newsroom WUSTL, 2014). The most recent 3D printed prosthetic hand is the Flexy-hand, produced by Gyrobot Ltd by Steve Wood. This prosthetic arm looks very similar to a natural human hand and it operates like one too. He has used Filaflex flexible filaments which form tendons that are activated by a motor that allows the prosthetic hand to operate very much like a normal hum an hand. (Krassenstein E, 2014)Maxillofacial prosthetics are also being produced by 3D printers. Usually the conventional maxillofacial prosthetics production requires that an impression from the trauma site is taken, then a plaster positive should be formed, a mould should be made and the specific shape must be carved in the wax, lastly it must be casted in silicone. This is very laborious, time consuming and expensive to be done. Using the 3D technology, the patients represent should be 3D-scanned, this image will then be converted to the appropriate file to print the perfectly suitable prosthetic part (Wainwright O, 2014, June 12).3D-printed titanium shoulder and collar machinate implants were successfully implanted into three different patients suffering from cancerous bone tumors in Xian, China. The bone design was printed using the selective laser sintering technique which fused titatium powder into the exact shape of the patients bone. The implants do not cause infections and are very permanent and resistant (Zeng C, 2014). This has also been done in the United Kingdom for a cancer patient (Moore G, 2014). Soon, 3D printing will replace manufacturing industries and save millions of lives.Various kinds of implants such as knee caps, skulls, auditory devices, and jaw bones deem already been produced by a 3D printer and have successfully been implanted. There are 2 astonishing cases whose patients have been given a second chance to live due to 3D printers. The first case is Stephen Power, he is a survivor of a motorbike accident that shattered his search. His face was hypothecate at Morrison Hospital in Swansea, however, his entire face was reconstructed using custom made 3D printed models, plates, implants and guides. The surgical team used CT scans to create symmetrical 3D models of Powers skull which they then printed, implanted, and held in place using a printed titanium implant (Griffith H, 2014). The second case is of a 22 year old woman from the Netherlands who had her skull replaced by a 3D printed skull implant. She suffered from a chronic bone disorder which increases the weightiness of her skull, neurosurgeons at the University Medical Centre Utrecht printed a perfectly fitting durable plastic skull implant (University Medical Center Utrecht UMCU research intelligence activity, 2014). Dr.Bon Verweij of the UMCU says Its now three months after the operation. The patient has fully regained her vision, she has no more complaints, shes gone seat to work and there are almost no traces that she had any military operation at all.The printing process of prosthetics and implants requires hours to a few days maximum. There arent any documented reactions to the prosthesis or implants, they are cheaper, more durable, more resistant, less laborious and they are FDA approved (Pollack SK, Coburn J, 2013). However the main disadvantage is the expensive price of the printer and the designing program. Most prototypes are open en ded and available online for modification and many hospitals and universities now have 3D printers (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12).With the increasing popularity and availability of 3D printers, we are finally ableto create prosthetics and implants under $1000. Even though alternative production methods are present, they are not available to the people that need them most due to their high cost. They are cheap, fast,References3deyehealth organization team. Seeing in 3D. Retrieved June 12, 2014, from www.3deyehealth.org3dprinterplans team. (2014, may 6). How To 3D stigma Beginners Guide To 3D Printing. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//3dprinterplans.info/how-to-3d-print-beginners-guide-to-3d-printing/Andrews TM. (2013, August 23). Can we rattling 3D print limbs for amputees? The atlantic magazine. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/08/can-we-really-3-d-print-limbs-for-amputees/278987/Deckard C, Beaman J, Bourell D. (2012, December 7). In terviews in the University of Texas. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.me.utexas.edu/ intelligence information/2012/0712_sls_hi news report.phpch4.Griffith H. (2014, March 12). Pioneering 3D printing reshapes patients face in Wales. BBC news. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-26534408Krassenstein E. (2014, March 10). The Flexy-Hand The Most innovative, Useful, Realistic Looking 3D Printed Prosthetic Hand Yet. 3D print blog. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//3dprint.com/1500/the-flexy-hand-3d-printed-prosthetic/Moore G. (2014, February 11). Surgeons have implanted a 3-D printed pelvis into a U.K. cancer patient. Fierce Medical Devices Newsletter. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/surgeons-have-implanted-3-d-printed-pelvis-uk-cancer-patient/2014-02-11Pollack SK, Coburn J. (2013, August 15). FDA goes 3-D. FDA voice. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2013/08/fda-goes-3-d/Pravas VS. (2013). 3D Printing Modern Manufacturing Rapid Prototyping. Engineers Garage. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.engineersgarage.com/articles/what-is-3d-printing-modern-manufacturing-and-rapid-prototyping? scallywag=1Scheineder Prototyping Limited members. Rapid Prototyping Stereolithography (SLA) Models. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.martello.co.uk/rapid_prototyping.htmSniderman Z. (2011, February 07). How Does 3D Technology Work? The Innovative Entertainment Series Dolby. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//mashable.com/2011/02/07/how-does-3d-work/Stratasys limited. FDM technology case studies. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.stratasys.com/resources/case-studies/medicalTurner R. (2009, May 30). Prosthetics costs. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.disabled-world.com/assistivedevices/prostheses/prosthetics-costs.phpUniversity Medical Center Utrecht newsroom. (2014, March 27). University Medical Center Utrecht Netherlands. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.umcutrecht.nl/research/news/2014/03/3d-printed-skull-implanted-in-patient.htmWainwright O. Faces to order how 3D printing is revolutionizing prosthetics. The guardian. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2013/nov/08/faces-3d-printing-prostheticsWalker A. (2013, June 21). 3D printing for dummies How do 3D printers work? The independent newspaper. Retrieved 2014, June 12 from http//www.independent.co.uk/Washington University in St.Louis Newsroom. ( 2014, May 7). WUSTL students print pink prosthetic arm for teen girl. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/26901.aspxWong KV, Hernandez A.( 2012). A Review Of Additive Manufacturing. ISRN Mechanical Engineering. Volume 2012. Article ID 208760. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http//dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/208760.Zeng C. (2014, June 3). In China, worlds first successful 3D-printed shoulder and collar bone implants. 3ders organization newsroom. Ret rieved 2014, June 12, from http//www.3ders.org/articles/20140603-in-china-world-first-successful-3d-printed-shoulder-and-collar-bone-implants.html